Token+Economy

1: Description of Strategy a) A token economy is a form of behavior modification designed to increase desirable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior with the use of tokens. Individuals receive tokens immediately after displaying desirable behavior. The tokens are collected and later exchanged for a meaningful object or privilege. To be successful, a person must be reinforced for increasing or decreasing existing behavior as well as successive approximations of the behaviors wished to be established. Common forms of tokens are plastic or metal circular chips, stars, holes punched in a card, stickers, happy faces, beans in a jar, and anything else that is easily dispensed, difficult to counterfeit, and safe to use. [|Example Video] [|Token Economy]

b) Token economies are designed for all types of students. The system can be adapted for certain age groups and behaviors. It can be used with general education students, special education students, and be used for individuals or groups of students. It is also important to know that token economies can be used with adults too, in correctional facilities, military divisions, colleges, among others.

c) To use this type of method, an individual needs to set up the token economy to include tokens, a clearly defined target behavior, back-up reinforcers, a system for exchanging tokens, a system for recording data, and consistent implementation of the token economy. The tokens can be anything that is visible and countable and have no value of their own. Individuals can also lose tokens for displaying undesirable behavior. The back-up reinforcers are the meaningful objects, privileges, or activities that individuals receive in exchange for their tokens.

d) There can be considerable cost, effort, and extensive staff training and management for the use of a token economy. This is a disadvantage and some professionals find token economies to be time-consuming and impractical. However, a professional can use many inexpensive rewards that require little time, such as privileges like sitting in the teacher chair, having lunch with the principal, free time on the computer, etc.

e) Some of the potential risks involved in token economies include the fact that staff members implementing the therapy may intentionally or unintentionally neglect the rights of individuals receiving treatment. Token economies should never deprive individuals their basic needs, such as food, water, or reasonable opportunities for leisure. If staff members are inadequately trained, desirable behaviors may not be rewarded or undesirable behaviors may be inadvertently rewarded, resulting in an increase of negative behavior.

f) Benefits of token economies are that behaviors can be rewarded immediately, the system allows for continuous feedback from students, rewards are the same for all members of a group, use of punishment is less restrictive than other forms of punishment, and individuals can learn skills related to planning for the future. Ideally, individuals will use the skills learned in a token economy in their everyday surroundings. They will display the undesirable behavior less frequently or not at all. They will also engage in positive behaviors more often.

g) Token economies are often used in institutional settings, such as psychiatric hospitals or correctional facilities, to manage the behavior of individuals who may be aggressive or unpredictable. The goal is to teach appropriate behavior and social skills that can be used in one's natural environment. Special education classrooms, general education classrooms, colleges, various types of group homes, military divisions, nursing homes, addiction treatment programs, occupational settings, family homes, and hospitals may also use token economies. Token economies can be used individually or in groups.

h) There has been plenty of research done on token economies in the last 50 years. There has been many problems and much controversy with this type of method, especially the application of token economies with adults. However, when applied to children and in schools, the token economy is an alternative arrangement of reinforcers for students who do not find school rewarding. There is still much research to be done on token economies and there are both positive and negative things about this type of method.

2: Research Study Nelson, Karl G. (2010). Exploration of Classroom Participation in the Presence of a Token Economy. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 37(1). 49-56.

a) This study addressed what variables relate to active classroom participation, especially in the presence of a token economy. For this study, 318 undergraduate students, taking classes over a period of semesters, provided data. The undergraduate students were enrolled in psychology courses at a Midwestern commuter university. They reported a mean GPA of 3.07 and their aged ranged from 18 to 69; 78% were female. The participants reported substantial ethno-cultural diversity: 57.3% Caucasian, 17.2% African American, 10.8% Hispanic, and 7% other (e.g., Asian, mixed heritage). Participants appeared relatively evenly distributed across class standing: 21.6% freshman, 25.1% sophomores, 31.1% juniors, and 22.2% seniors.

b) Research design included the Big Five Inventory (BFI), which contains 44 self-report items designed to measure five different personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. (Benet-Martínez & John, 1998). It also contained the Goal Orientation Questionnaire (GOQ), which contains 24 items answered on a five-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The GOQ provides three scores related to how students approach a specific class: Performance Approach (working to maximize grades), Mastery Approach (working to maximize learning), and Performance Avoidance (completing the course with the least amount of effort).

c) The Dependent Variable from this research study was the **increase in an individual's classroom participation** as a result of receiving bonus points (BPs) for asking good questions during class discussions.

d) The Independent Variable was the **use of BPs** (bonus points). Cards served as the bonus point tokens in this study. The front side of the card read "Bonus Point" and has a stamped copy of the instructor's signature. The back side of the card had two spaces for completion by students: name of student and course number. Students present for the end-of-semester teaching evaluations were also asked to complete the EOS (End of Semester Bonus Point Feedback Form) to provide feedback on the use and impact of BPs. Higher scores indicated greater appreciation for BPs and perceived greater impact of BPs use.

e) Out of the students who participated in this study, 251 (78.9%) chose to participate in class by asking questions. Across all students, the number of questions asked (to receive BPs) ranged from 0 to 26. On the average, each student received a BP about once every 3 - 4 class days. Among the students with no BPs earned during the semester, 24 dropped early in the semester (no first mid-term exam) and 2 more dropped before the end of the semester (no final exam). This reduced the number of students included in subsequent analyses to a maximum of 292; actual numbers varied based on missing data from other variables. The author states that the results of assessing student participation suggested the usefulness of the token economy for encouraging classroom participation. The rates of participation clearly exceed those suggested by Jalongo et al. (1998). In addition, the percentage of students who participated, as measured by assessing BPs, suggested that the intervention helped to minimize concentration of classroom participation among only a few students.